Religions View Religions

With a plethora of varying theologies, it’s interesting to analyze how the different religions view their counterparts. A popular model of theology of religion known as relativizing pluralism maintains that all religions are simply many paths all leading to one and the same goal. In other words, this theory suggests that there is no essential difference between the varying religions. However, there are flaws with this theory, most notably that “the refusal or failure on the part of relativist pluralism to recognize genuine religious differences and uniqueness constitutes a refusal and failure to take people of other faiths and their religions seriously,” (Gort, Jansen & Vroom 3).   [Gort, Jerald D., Henry Jansen, and Hendrik M. Vroom, eds. Religions View Religions: Explorations in Pursuit of Understanding. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2006. Questia.]

Global Religions

It may appear that religions are spatially defined. For example, Buddhism is local to China, the Middle East represents Islam and Christianity reigns over Europe and the Western Hemisphere. However, while roots may be traced back to certain locations, it has never actually been like that and religions are in fact global. Over the course of time religions have moved, shifted and interacted with other religions around the globe. “Religion is global in that it is related to the global transportation of peoples and the transnational acceptance of religious ideas,” (Juergensmeyer 5). In addition, religion is global in a third way, in which forms of new religion emerge as expressions of new interactive cultures. [Juergensmeyer, Mark, ed. Global Religions: An Introduction. New York: Oxford UP, 2003.Questia.]

Religions of the Ancient World

Religions have been crucial to society for thousands of years, and throughout the years, ancient peoples were exposed to a diversity of religions. Most notably, religious beliefs and practices were transmitted throughout the Mediterranean as people journeyed from one place to the next selling skills as healers, purifiers, cursers and initiators. The transmission of goods and beliefs resulted in the acknowledgment of similarities across religions and changes to each religion that occurred as travels continued.  [Johnston, Sarah Iles, ed. Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide. Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2004. Questia.]

Religions in the Modern World

With globalization, politics and secularization, religion in the modern world has transformed greatly. There have been examples of religious actors with political goals touring third world countries, where religious beliefs are the top of publicly expressed sociopolitical concerns. On the other hand, in recent years the interaction of church and state has continued to be a stressed point in American politics and the lines are being drawn more clearly.  [Woodhead, Linda, Paul Fletcher, Hiroko Kawanami, and David Smith, eds. Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations. London: Routledge, 2002. Questia.]

The Spirituality Revolution

The spirituality revolution is defined as “a spontaneous movement in society, a new interest in the reality of spirit and its healing effects on life, health, community and well-being,”(Tacey 1). As a continuously changing society, ideal values and beliefs that existed have seemingly become outdated. The spirituality revolution revises concepts of life, society and progress and intertwines new discoveries in physics, biology, psychology and ecology that restores dignity to previously discredited spiritual visions of reality. [Tacey, David. The Spirituality Revolution: The Emergence of Contemporary Spirituality. Hove, England: Brunner-Routledge, 2004. Questia.]

For further research on spiritual literacy, visit Questia! What other interesting reads would you recommend for Spiritual Literacy Month?

Artist Andy Warhol (© AP Images)

In honor of August’s American Artist Appreciation Month, we’ve released a list of the top five most researched American artists in our library. To celebrate, we’re opening up some of our best content to make reference works on these famous artists free for an entire month!

1. Andy Warhol: Famous for his pop art paintings, prints, photography, film, music and much more, Andy Warhol is considered one of the most controversial artists of the century. Whether the opinion is positive or negative, it’s clear that Warhol’s art struck a nerve with many. “In more than one hundred books and in more than a thousand articles, writers have either adored or despised Andy Warhol, and no other artist has ever aroused such impassioned praise and vehement condemnation.” (Pratt xvii) [Pratt, Alan R., ed. The Critical Response to Andy Warhol.Westport,CT:Greenwood, 1997. Questia. Web.]

2. Jackson Pollock: Famous for his technique of pouring, dripping and splattering paint onto the canvas, Jackson Pollock, appropriately nicknamed “Jack the Dripper,” is a pivotal figure in American postwar art. His large-scale paintings were influenced a great deal by the two artists that Pollock admired most, Picasso and Miró. “In recent years scholars have recognized the seriousness of Pollock’s artistic aims, the originality of his stylistic solutions, and his crucial role in the general development of contemporary art.” (Cernuschi 1) [Cernuschi, Claude. Jackson Pollock: Meaning and Significance.New York: Icon Editions, 1992. Questia. Web.]

3. Mark Rothko: Mark Rothko was an abstract expressionist artist famous in the fifties and sixties for his paintings featuring colorful blocks and rectangles. While some declared Rothko to be a genius, others found his work simple and incapable of being considered serious art. “Rothko, back in the early 1950s, was a fighting word. I remember vividly the combative, black-and-white climate that divided theNew York art world into pro-or-con extremes when faced with the unheralded innovations of the Abstract Expressionists.” (Rosenblum 122) [Rosenblum, Robert. On Modern American Art: Selected Essays.New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1999. Questia. Web.]

4. Mary Cassatt: A 19th century American painter, many of Mary Cassatt’s paintings focused on women, particularly mothers and their children. This female impressionist was praised for the wholesomeness of the figures in her work, while many fellow impressionists were accused of “scattering the body in calligraphic excess.” (Higonnet 105) “Cassatt’s pictures are filled with embraces. Everything extraneous to the physical contact between mothers’ and children’s bodies has been eliminated. Mother and child virtually never gaze toward anyone or anything except each other, so they are engaged only in their mutual absorption.” (Higonnet 104) [Frederickson, Kristen, and Sarah E. Webb, eds. Singular Women: Writing the Artist.Berkeley,CA:University ofCalifornia, 2003. Questia. Web.]

5. Georgia O’Keeffe: Born in November of 1887, Georgia O’Keeffe is one of the most celebrated female artists of the 20th century. Recognizable themes and imagery include flowers and bones, which O’Keeffe frequently painted so that they appeared extremely close up. “Georgia O’Keeffe was one of the ways to be a woman and an artist, and it seems important not to see her life as a mold, a pattern that determines form, defining a way to live.” (Patten and Cardona-Hine 5) [Patten, Christine Taylor, and Alvaro Cardona-Hine. Miss O'Keeffe.Albuquerque:University ofNew Mexico, 1992. Questia. Web.]

Visit Questia’s topic page on famous artists for more information.

American inventor Thomas Edison

In honor of August’s National Inventors Month, we’ve granted access to reference works on five of history’s most famous american inventors for free for an entire month.

1. Thomas Edison: Born in Milan, Ohio in 1847, Edison is undoubtedly one of the most influential inventors of all time. Perhaps one of his most notable inventions was the light bulb. Edison is also known for inventing the phonograph and various motion picture devices, including the kinetograph and kinetoscope. “Edison was both a millionaire and one of the best-known men alive. Still in his 30s, he had launched an industry that would, over the next several decades, spread its lights throughout the country and the world” (Adair 98). [Adair, Gene. Thomas Alva Edison: Inventing the Electric Age. New York: Oxford UP, 1996. Questia. Web.]

2. Alexander Graham Bell: Alexander Graham Bell’s invention, the telephone, is another one of the most widely used inventions of all time. “When the telephone was first invented, few thought it would be useful, yet by the end of the century almost every household in the United States had some form of telephone service” (McMaster 1). The telephone was first introduced at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876 and became the hit of the entire event. From there, the telephone took many forms and evolved into the essential communication tool that we use today. [Mcmaster, Susan E. The Telecommunications Industry. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2002. Questia. Web.]

3. Orville and Wilbur Wright: This dynamic brother duo was among the first to truly take flight. “They fabricated their wings by cutting basic shapes from sheet steel. These could be bent to give the desired curve of an airfoil” (Heppenheimer 147).  In the end, it was one equation that made all the difference, L= k S V² Cι. After various trials with different modifications, the Wright brothers achieved a 12-second flight in 1903, which was the first of its kind. [Heppenheimer, T. A. First Flight: The Wright Brothers and the Invention of the Airplane. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2003. Questia. Web.]

4. Philo Farnsworth: Originating from very humble roots, Farnsworth is the mastermind behind the television. In 1927, “Farnsworth chose the simplest of images. He painted a glass slide black with a straight white line down its center. There was a compelling logic to his choice of image for this test.” (Horvitz 104). This is the first image that was ever broadcast on what we now refer to as “television”. [Horvitz, Leslie Alan. Eureka! : Stories of Scientific Discovery. New York: Wiley, 2002. Questia. Web]

5. Jonas Salk: This inventor managed to eliminate one of the most frightening public health problems in the United States: polio. After attending medical school, Salk and his wife moved to Michigan so he could complete research work on a vaccine that would kill the influenza virus. After his time at the University of Michigan, he accepted a research position at the University of Pittsburgh. “Salk would receive a generous multiyear grant from the foundation. His medical school would be reimbursed for all the indirect costs it incurred, such as maintenance, utilities, and insurance” (Oshinsky 116). In 1955, the polio vaccine was deemed safe for use and has virtually eliminated that disease that plagued people across the globe. [Oshinsky, David M. Polio: An American Story. New York: Oxford UP, 2005. Questia. Web.]

Visit Questia’s topic page on famous inventors for more even more quality research.