1. Challenger Space Shuttle: On the morning of January 28^th, 1986, the nation watched in horror as the Challenger Space Craft exploded 73 seconds after launching at Port Canaveral in Florida, the result of an O-ring improperly sealing components of the spacecraft. All seven crew members aboard the flight perished in the explosion, including teacher Christine McAuliffe who was expected to be the American civilian in space. The explosion led to a 32 month hiatus of NASA space missions as well as the formation of the Rogers Commission to investigate the incident. Eventually, the Teacher in Space program would be folded into a larger “Teaching From Space program,” a national program for educating students about space. [Burgess, Colin.  Teacher in Space: Christa McAuliffe and the Challenger Legacy.  University ofNebraska Press: 2000]

2. Apollo 11: The goal of NASA’s Project Apollo was to land the first humans onto the moon. On July 16^th, 1969, that mission succeeded with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landing on the lunar surface, with Armstrong infamously declaring that this is “one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” The success of this space mission left several important legacies, including securing the United States position as a technological and economic world power as well as allowing people to view the world in a new way. [Launius, Roger.  Frontiers of Space Exploration. Greenwood Press: 1998]

3. Apollo 13: Commanded by James Lovell alongside John Swigert and Fred Haise, Apollo 13 was faced with complications 55 hours into the mission. An explosion caused damage to equipment and an oxygen tank, promoting them to return to the Earth’s atmosphere. The shuttle was able to safely land in the Pacific, but crew members were forced to conserve as much energy as possible until the rescue boat retrieved them. An investigation was launched following the incident to determine the cause of the oxygen tank explosion and to prevent future such events from occurring.  [Levine, Alan J.  The Missile and Space Race.  Praeger: 1994]

4. Columbia Space Shuttle: As the Columbia Space Shuttle re-entered the Earth’s atmosphere after a 16-day mission, an explosion caused the shuttle to disintegrate on February 1^st, 2003, with the disaster resulting in the loss of all seven crew members aboard. It was determined that damage to the wing of the shuttle during launch from a loss of foam in the shuttle contributed to the accident, with the thermal protection system failing to properly insulate the shuttle upon re-entering the Earth’s surface.  [Mahler, Julianne.  Organizational Learning at NASA: The Challenger and Columbia Accidents.  Georgetown University Press: 2009]

5. Mercury 3: Alan Shepard became the first American man to fly into space with his mission on May 5^th, 1961, aboard the Mercury-Redstone 3.  Shepard spent roughly 217 hours away from Earth and only 15 weightless minutes in space in the closet-sized capsule. His launch is widely-regarded as a historical milestone which set the precedent for all future space exploration. The widely broadcast and publicized event was later declared by Shepard as a baby step for the space program. [Harper, Jennifer.  “Alan Shepard, First American in Space Dies at 74.”  Washington Post: July 23,1998]

For all the latest space shuttle news including missions, development and behind-the-scenes scoops, check out NASA‘s Space Shuttle blog.

Science fiction author H.G.Wells (Photo by ZeroEnergyVN)

We’re continuing our celebration of Space Exploration Month in honor of the historic events that took place in the month of July! Visit Questia’s topic page on space exploration for more information on the memorable dates in space exploration history including the Apollo 11 lift off, the U.S.’s Moon Day and even the anniversary of NASA’s founding. Interest in space exploration has transcended generations, being kept alive by not only the heroes of space exploration themselves but also the writers who capture the mystery and excitement of space travel. Novels like 2001: A Space Odyssey and The Martian Chronicles have had, and continue to have, a tremendous impact on the way readers view outer space. In honor of Space Exploration Month, we’re granting access to content on or by our library’s top five most researched science fiction writers for free for an entire month. Enjoy!

1. Ray Bradbury: Ray Bradbury was born in 1920 in Waukegan, Illinois. His family moved often, finally relocating to California where Bradbury enrolled in Los Angeles High School and became active in the areas of writing and drama. It was in high school that Bradbury began to publish short stories, poetry and articles, in addition to becoming a member of the Los Angeles Science Fiction League. “The late 1940s and 1950s were when much of his best-known work was written and published: The Martian Chronicles (1950), The Illustrated Man (1951), Fahrenheit 451 (1953), and Dandelion Wine (1957)” (Reid 3). Ray Bradbury passed away on June 5, 2012 in Los Angeles at the age of 91 after a long, successful career marked by numerous awards, honors, and the translation of his pieces into nearly thirty different languages. [Reid, Robin Anne. Ray Bradbury: A Critical Companion. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000. Questia. Web.]

2. H.G. Wells: Though he authored works in numerous genres in addition to science fiction, H.G. Wells is considered one of the pioneers of the genre. The First Men in the Moon was published at the beginning of the 20^th century and is what is referred to as a “scientific romance,” a genre that Wells visited often. It tells the story of two men in the English countryside that journey to the moon. “I take it the reader has seen pictures or photographs of the moon, so that I need not describe the broader features of that landscape, those spacious ringlike ranges vaster than any terrestrial mountains, their summits shining in the day, their shadows harsh and deep, the grey disordered plains, the ridges, hills, and craterlets, all passing at last from a blazing illumination into a common mystery of black” (Wells 70). [Wells, H. G. The First Men in the Moon.London: Macmillan, 1904. Questia. Web.]

3. Jules Verne: Born on February 8, 1928 and having authored famous novels like A Journey to the Center of the Earth, Around the World in Eighty Days and Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, Jules Verne is thought by many to be the one responsible for pioneering the genre of science fiction. One of the earlier science fiction works, From the Earth to the Moon, tackles space travel after the American Civil War. [Verne, Jules. From the Earth to the Moon: And Round the Moon.New York: Dodd, Mead, 1962. Questia. Web.]

4. Arthur C. Clarke: Born on December 16, 1917, Arthur C. Clarke is best known for his classic novel 2001: A Space Odyssey, among others. “Like many of the early rocket pioneers, Clarke had been inspired by the science fiction vision of the world evoked in the works of Verne and Wells. He wrote technologically-based science fiction in order to promote this future to a wider public” (Poole 39). Clarke strongly believed that science fiction, including his own works, played a large role in public support of the space program. “The distinguishing feature of Clarke’s own science fiction had always been his combination of technological realism with a sense of wonder and what he called ‘a search for ultimate’ values’” (Poole 39). Clarke passed away in March of 2008 at the age of 90. [Poole, Robert. "2001 a Space Odyssey." History Today Jan. 2001: 39. Questia. Web.]

5. Robert A. Heinlein: Robert Heinlein was born on July 7, 1907 in Butler, Missouri, and is the author of numerous science fiction books for both children and adults, including Have Spacesuit – Will Travel and Stranger in a Strange Land. “Some scholars argue that Robert A. Heinlein was the most influential writer of the 20th Century” (Price). It has been noted that one can find a Heinlein reference for many modern day occurrences, meaning that the author was thinking well beyond his time. The author of the piece notes a specific instance having to do with Heinlein’s The Moon is a Harsh Mistress. “In this 1966 novel, Heinlein’s revolutionary war leader was Adam Selene, who was not human, but entirely computer generated. It’s interesting to note that Heinlein created Adam Selene two decades before the computer-animated TV character Max Headroom and long before today’s avatars” (Price). Heinlein passed away in 1988. [Price, Cynthia. "A Heinlein Child Pays Homage to the Master." ETC.: A Review of General Semantics 64.4 (2007): 349+. Questia. Web.]

For even more information on famous science fiction writers — as well as more excellent reading suggestions — check out Flavorwire‘s post, “The Greatest Female Sci-Fi/Fantasy Authors of All Time.”

Plato and Aristotle "The School of Athens"

To honor the historic events that took place in the month of July, we’re continuing our celebration of Space Exploration Month! Check out Questia’s topic page on space exploration for information on the memorable dates in space exploration history including the Apollo 11 lift off, the U.S.’s Moon Day and even the anniversary of NASA’s founding. None of those milestones could have come to pass without the the famous early astronomers from around the world. From determining that the Earth is round to discovering gravity, the theories of history’s earliest astronomers helped lay the foundation for today’s celestial sciences. In honor of Space Exploration Month, we’re granting access to reference works on five of history’s earliest astronomers for free for an entire month. Enjoy them while they’re available for this limited time!

1. Aristotle: Born in 384 B.C. in what is now the northern part of Greece, Aristotle spent much of his adult life in Athens and was a member of Plato’s Academy. While the chronological order of Aristotle’s works are unknown, many of his lectures offer a dialectical examination of physics and nature as well as proponed theories on form and matter. Aristotle’s claims of form and matter are the foundation for his most detailed accounts on substance, which also reflect his philosophy on the relation between mind, body and soul, as well as the nature of knowledge. [Irwin, Terrence, et al.  Aristotle: Selections.  Hackett Publishing Company: 1995]

2. Plato: A student of Socrates, Plato’s philosophy and theories of metaphysics and forms are well-recognized as well as his creation theories. Plato’s creation story, Timaeus, explores themes on the formation of the universe using natural philosophy. Plato suggested that the world was divinely created by a supreme deity, in a manner that similarly reflects today’s widely accepted “Big Bang” theory. [Zeyl, Donald J.  Timaeus.  Hackett: 2000]

3. Galileo: Known as the father of modern science, Galileo’s theories transformed Western culture and set the precedent for the Scientific Revolution. Galileo’s contributions to space exploration include his view that the Earth revolves around the Sun, contrary to the religious belief at the time that the Earth was the center of the universe. Galileo also improved upon the telescope and with it made several celestial discoveries, including studying the moons of Jupiter. [Shea, William R.  Galileo in Rome: The Rise and Fall of a Troublesome Genius. OxfordUniversity Press: 2003]

4. Nicholas Copernicus: Copernicus was a man of many trades, but is perhaps most remembered for his outlooks on astronomy and the universe. Within the field of astronomy, Copernicus contributed his theory in which the solar system functioned; with the sun at the center moving the Earth, moons and planets. Following the theory of light years and the Copernican conception, it was later discovered that the Earth is 93 million light years from the Sun. [Mizwa, Stephen P.  Nicholas Copernicus, 1543-1943.  Kosciuszko Foundation: 1943]

5. Isaac Newton: Some of Newton’s metaphysical concepts include absolute space, absolute time and absolute motion. These notions explore the theory that space, time and motion are the works of celestial mechanics which are based on gravitational pull. He recognized that the sun was the center of gravity within the solar system and that the planets move with an orbital motion in the form of an ellipse. From orbital motion, Newton deduced the theory of Universal gravitation in which is based on the compounding of celestial motions. [Cohen, Bernard.  The Cambridge Companion to Newton. CambridgeUniversity Press: 2002]

For a detailed timeline of early discoveries in astronomy, check out hotliquidmagma.com‘s ”A Practical Guide to Astronomy: The Early Astronomers.”

Astronaut John Glenn

July is a memorable month in space exploration. In fact, the anniversary of the Apollo 11 lift off is on July 16^th, Moon Day is on July 20^th and the anniversary of NASA is July 29^th. Check out Questia’s topic page on space exploration for more information on these memorable dates in space exploration history. To honor these historic events, we at Questia are declaring the entire month of July Space Exploration Month! And, where would we be without the brave individuals who chose to boldly go where no one had previously gone before? Astronauts and cosmonauts have played a huge role in space exploration throughout the decades, so in honor of these noble heroes, we’ve granted access to reference works on the top five most researched astronauts and cosmonauts for free for an entire month. Enjoy them while they’re available for this limited time!

1. John Glenn: In the article, Godspeed John Glenn: 50 Years since His First Flight, it outlines the historic moment in our American history when astronaut John Glenn climbed into Friendship 7 as the first American to orbit the earth. “Glenn circled Earth three times in five hours, putting America on even footing with the Soviet Union. Unlike the secretive Soviet space program, NASA conducted its manned launches on live TV” (“Godspeed John Glenn: 50″ 4). In fact, Glenn was such a seasoned astronaut that he even became the oldest person to fly in space. He was seventy-seven years old when Discovery launched in 1998. ["Godspeed John Glenn: 50 Years since His Flight." Daily Herald (Arlington Heights, IL) 17 Feb. 2012: 4. Questia. Web.]

2. Neil Armstrong: America in the Sixties—Right, Left, and Center: A Documentary History provides an intimate look at the space program and its importance to our nation. Neil Armstrong, most known for his famous quote, “this is one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind,” was one of the first astronauts to land and walk on the moon’s surface. During a time in our history where men struggled to get along, Apollo 11 became something much more important. “The mission to the moon transcended the political conflict and social turmoil that marked the sixties. Economic prosperity and scientific and technological progress made the space program possible” (Levy 251). [Levy, Peter B., ed. America in the Sixties--Right, Left, and Center A Documentary History. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998. Questia. Web.]

3. Yuri Gagarin: Yuri Gagarin was a young Russian pilot and was touted as being the “first human to journey about our planet” (French 1). The book, Into That Silent Sea: Trailblazers of the Space Era, 1961-1965, discusses this exciting time in our history when space exploration was at our fingertips. President Lyndon B. Johnson wrote, “Yuri Gagarin’s courageous and pioneering flight into space opened new horizons and set a brilliant example for the spacemen of the two countries” (French 1).  [French, Francis, and Colin Burgess. Into That Silent Sea: Trailblazers of the Space Era, 1961-1965. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2007. Questia. Web.]

4. Buzz Aldrin: Buzz Aldrin was the other astronaut alongside Neil Armstrong on Apollo 11’s successful mission to land on the moon. In the Shadow of the Moon: A Challenging Journey to Tranquility 1965-1969 outlines Buzz Aldrin’s experience that led up to his successful Apollo 11 mission. Aldrin’s father was an aviation manager in the oil industry and introduced his son to flight, supposedly taking “his son for his first airplane ride when Buzz was two years old” (French 123). Aldrin attended West Point and later MIT, and was also an astronaut on the successful Gemini 12 space flight. [French, Francis, and Colin Burgess. In the Shadow of the Moon: A Challenging Journey to Tranquility, 1965-1969. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2007. Questia. Web.]

5. Christa McAuliffe: The story of Christa McAuliffe is perhaps one of the most tragic tales in NASA history. The book Teacher in Space: Christa McAuliffe and the Challenger Legacy outlines her amazing journey from teacher to space adventurer. “Christa was an innovative social sciences teacher who believed that the ordinary person contributed as much to history as did presidents and kings” (Burgess Foreword). On the morning of January 28, 1986, Challenger roared to life and started its ascent into the sky, but “seventy-three seconds into the flight, a massive fireball flashed along the length of the spacecraft and a titanic explosion blew Challenger apart” (Burgess 78). Christa McAuliffe left a lasting impression not only on the space program, but on the United States. [Burgess, Colin. Teacher in Space: Christa McAuliffe and the Challenger Legacy. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2000. Questia. Web.]

Ever wonder what the Earth looks like to astronauts as they’re blasting into space? Check out the video, “Cosmic Journeys: What an Astronaut’s Camera Sees” on SpaceInfo.org.