School of Athens

What is the philosophy of education? It is the philosophical study of education and the problems surrounding it. Since the time of Socrates, philosophers and educators have discussed many issues which are trouble contemporary philosophers of education. What is the aim or purposes of education? Who should be educated? Should education depend on natural interests and abilities? What role should the state play in education?

Greek philosophers Plato, Socrates and Aristotle are among the major figures who laid the foundations of educational philosophy. They debated on different subjects in the past that are important for philosophy of education even now.

While teaching, Socrates engaged the others in dialogue. His method excluded writing, but focused on dialogues where series of questions are discussed by the teacher and the student until the analysis goes as far as both can take it. This way of teaching is known now as the “Socratic method.”

Plato’s way of teaching was tailored to create competent adults to meet the needs of the state. Through this functionalist model Plato developed his image of education in the context of the ideal state. His ideas suggest that there is no inherent conflict between the individual and the state. In Plato’s view educators could work to develop people who are useful to the state.

In Aristotle’s view, people had to be trained or educated according to their place in life. They should excel in their tasks and in line with their function. Aristotle believed that no matter if one is a leader, an artist or a housewife, they have their talents and virtues, but these features differ in every one of them.

Aristotle’s work is also interesting for modern educators due to his moral thought. Aristotle taught that children should be trained in morally appropriate modes of conduct. The model of moral education he established is widely popular today.

The ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 to 1778) are also attractive for present-day philosophers. He believed strongly in the freedom of the human spirit.

John Dewey (1859 to 1952) is also among the most influential names in the area of educational philosophy. Throughout his lifetime Dewey wrote many books and articles in nearly all branches of philosophy, including logic, metaphysics, epistemology, philosophy of science, ontology aesthetics, political and social philosophy and ethics.

For Dewey, philosophy of education was the most fundamental and crucial branch of philosophy, and all other branches were dependent on it. He perceived philosophy of education as philosophy of life. Dewey often put education as a synonymous of growth, though this view met a lot of opposition. He insisted that growth was the ultimate aim of education.

Others who devoted part of their work to philosophy of education include Avicenna, John Locke, Immanuel Kant, John Milton and Maria Montessori.

If you are writing a paper on this topic, you can find and cite high-quality, scholarly research in the Questia library, which contains the books and journal articles as well as magazine and newspaper articles needed to complete most college-level, core-curriculum course assignments.

Selected books and articles on Philosophy of Education

From Fallacy to Integrity: Dewey’s Call for a Philosophy of Experience
O’Neill, Linda. Journal of Thought, Vol. 41, No. 3, Fall 2006

Non-Western Educational Traditions: Indigenous Approaches to Educational Thought and Practice
Timothy Reagan. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005 (3rd edition)

An Educational Philosophy Guides the Pedagogical Process
Petress, Kenneth C. College Student Journal, Vol. 37, No. 1, March 2003

Fifty Major Thinkers on Education: From Confucius to Dewey
Joy A. Palmer; Liora Bresler; David E. Cooper. Routledge, 2001

Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education
John Dewey. Macmillan, 1921

Visit Questia’s topic page on the philosophy of education for more information. If not already a member, you can try Questia free for one day and conduct research into philosophy and education in our more than 75,000 books and 9 million articles.

Kateri Tekakwitha, 1690

November is National Native American Heritage Month, and throughout the country individuals and organizations celebrate the culture, character and history of Native Americans. To honor the historical month, we’ve gathered five informational books and articles on Kateri Tekakwitha, the newly sainted Native American and opened up these five reference works on Tekakwitha free for a month. Enjoy!

Mohawk Saint: Catherine Tekakwitha and the Jesuits

This book delves into the relationship between the Americanization at an individual level. While historians are familiar with the epidemics, conquests and introduction of a strange religion to the Native Americans as a whole, the effects on an individual level are not as clear. Greer unearths the life of Tekakwitha and her relationship with the Jesuit missionaries. [Greer, Allan. Mohawk Saint: Catherine Tekakwitha and the Jesuits. New York: Oxford UP, 2005. Questia.]

Lily of the Mohawks

Orphaned at age four as the result of a smallpox epidemic, Kateri Tekakwitha rose from her troubled childhood to lead a meaningful life. Though she was raised as a traditional Mohawk girl, she converted to Christianity at age 20. She was persecuted by her family and neighbors for choosing the foreign lifestyle and eventually ran away. She refused to marry and took a vow of perpetual virginity. [Lemire, Paula Anne Sharkey. "Lily of the Mohawks." Michigan History Magazine November-December 2007: 10+. Questia.]

Natives and Nationalism: The Americanization of Kateri Tekakwitha

In the 1880’s, reforming voices – mainly from the east – started to clamor settlers more to end violence and for assistance to bring the poor Indian into the American mainstream. Through military conquest, school initiatives and the Dawes Act, a separate way of life wasn’t likely for the Indians.  In the spiritualization spectrum, Tekakwitha emerged as the ideal candidate for canonization and she served as a symbolic antidote to the negative associations the Church faced.  [Greer, Allan. "Natives and Nationalism: The Americanization of Kateri Tekakwitha." The Catholic Historical Review 90.2 (2004): 260. Questia.]

The Narrative Repatriation of Blessed Kateri Tekakwitha

According to Holmes, Tekakwitha has become known as “the voice, presence and identity of Native Americans” in the church. Through four interrelated narrative ways, Tekakwitha is given a “voice” by her contemporary devout. The layering of reclamations constitutes what Holmes refers to as narrative repatriation.  [Holmes, Paula E. "The Narrative Repatriation of Blessed Kateri Tekakwitha." Anthropologica43.1 (2001): 87. Questia.]

Native American Women

Contrary to the “squaw” or “princess” stereotypes, Native American women have played an important role in both traditional and contemporary culture. Pocahontas, Sacagawea, Lozen and Dahteste have histories filled with tales of sacrifice and exploits to create a warrior type status, but have the stories been perpetuated myths? Bataille and Lisa strive to present an accurate account of the lives of historical Native American women. [Bataille, Gretchen M., and Laurie Lisa, eds. Native American Women: A Biographical Dictionary. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2001. Questia.]

Visit Questia’s topic page on Native American literature for more information. If not already a member, you can try Questia free for one day and conduct research into human rights issues in our books and journals. Questia saves students valuable time on research papers and projects. With Questia, students can accurately cite sources in multiple styles and organize their notes, research and sources all in one place. Librarians have specially selected Questia’s 77,000 academic books and 4 million journal articles—many of which are peer-reviewed.

Religions View Religions

With a plethora of varying theologies, it’s interesting to analyze how the different religions view their counterparts. A popular model of theology of religion known as relativizing pluralism maintains that all religions are simply many paths all leading to one and the same goal. In other words, this theory suggests that there is no essential difference between the varying religions. However, there are flaws with this theory, most notably that “the refusal or failure on the part of relativist pluralism to recognize genuine religious differences and uniqueness constitutes a refusal and failure to take people of other faiths and their religions seriously,” (Gort, Jansen & Vroom 3).   [Gort, Jerald D., Henry Jansen, and Hendrik M. Vroom, eds. Religions View Religions: Explorations in Pursuit of Understanding. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2006. Questia.]

Global Religions

It may appear that religions are spatially defined. For example, Buddhism is local to China, the Middle East represents Islam and Christianity reigns over Europe and the Western Hemisphere. However, while roots may be traced back to certain locations, it has never actually been like that and religions are in fact global. Over the course of time religions have moved, shifted and interacted with other religions around the globe. “Religion is global in that it is related to the global transportation of peoples and the transnational acceptance of religious ideas,” (Juergensmeyer 5). In addition, religion is global in a third way, in which forms of new religion emerge as expressions of new interactive cultures. [Juergensmeyer, Mark, ed. Global Religions: An Introduction. New York: Oxford UP, 2003.Questia.]

Religions of the Ancient World

Religions have been crucial to society for thousands of years, and throughout the years, ancient peoples were exposed to a diversity of religions. Most notably, religious beliefs and practices were transmitted throughout the Mediterranean as people journeyed from one place to the next selling skills as healers, purifiers, cursers and initiators. The transmission of goods and beliefs resulted in the acknowledgment of similarities across religions and changes to each religion that occurred as travels continued.  [Johnston, Sarah Iles, ed. Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide. Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2004. Questia.]

Religions in the Modern World

With globalization, politics and secularization, religion in the modern world has transformed greatly. There have been examples of religious actors with political goals touring third world countries, where religious beliefs are the top of publicly expressed sociopolitical concerns. On the other hand, in recent years the interaction of church and state has continued to be a stressed point in American politics and the lines are being drawn more clearly.  [Woodhead, Linda, Paul Fletcher, Hiroko Kawanami, and David Smith, eds. Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations. London: Routledge, 2002. Questia.]

The Spirituality Revolution

The spirituality revolution is defined as “a spontaneous movement in society, a new interest in the reality of spirit and its healing effects on life, health, community and well-being,”(Tacey 1). As a continuously changing society, ideal values and beliefs that existed have seemingly become outdated. The spirituality revolution revises concepts of life, society and progress and intertwines new discoveries in physics, biology, psychology and ecology that restores dignity to previously discredited spiritual visions of reality. [Tacey, David. The Spirituality Revolution: The Emergence of Contemporary Spirituality. Hove, England: Brunner-Routledge, 2004. Questia.]

For further research on spiritual literacy, visit Questia! What other interesting reads would you recommend for Spiritual Literacy Month?

Human Rights for the 21st Century

Historically, the topic of human rights has been a global issue within various societies, but as time has passed, the morality of the issue has been brought to the forefront. In the 21^st century, particularly since the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the international debate has intensified with a global spotlight focusing on issues such as oppressive governments and civil wars. With the international system increasingly considering intervention in countries where humanitarian concerns have been raised, it is important for countries such as the United States to keep in mind that the ultimate goal is to improve human rights. [Stacy, Helen M. Human Rights for the 21^st Century: Sovereignty, Civil Society, Culture.StanfordUniversity Press: 2009]

Fighting for Human Rights

There have been many groups throughout history that have revolted against civil society as a result of oppressed human rights, ultimately acting as the catalyst central to the campaign for social change. From overthrowing communist regimes in Eastern Europe to the current political arena with debates surrounding the future of globalization and global politics, the ever-changing definitions and ambiguity regarding human rights will forever keep it a hot-button issue. [Gready, Paul.  Fighting for Human Rights.  Routledge: 2004]

The Globalization of Human Rights

Throughout history, global human rights have evolved, with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) serving as the modern-day cornerstone for future standards of achievement. However since it is an all-encompassing topic with varying levels of civil, political, social and economic rights, standards will vary from country to country. Despite the progress human rights has made as a whole, especially over the past 50 years, social order is still the prime factor that affects how rights transcend within the human race. [Coicaud, Jean-Marc, et al.  The Globalization of Human Rights. UnitedNationsUniversity Press: 2003]

Human Rights in the European Court

The European Court of Human rights which has adopted an American-style body of constitutional law, serves as a regulator that routinely confronts nations over their most culturally sensitive hot-button issues. From France’s Muslim immigration issues to Turkey’s Kurdish separatism, the court has boasted an impressive record of political courage and achievement. [Goldhaber, Michael D.  A People’s History of the European Court of Human Rights. RutgersUniversity Press: 2007]

Humanitarian Intervention

A recent development in human rights history is the age of interventionism, or the willingness to use force in the name of humanitarian values. As a result of actions such as NATO’s response to the Kosovo crisis to the Security Council’s authorized use of force in East Timor, issues about the legality and morality of human intervention has dominated the international legal and political agenda. Especially within mainstream international law and international relations circles, the notion that force can be legitimately be used as a response to humanitarian challenges has received increased support. [Orford, Anne.  Reading Humanitarian Intervention:  Human Rights and the Use of Force in International Law. CambridgeUniversity Press: 2003]

Visit Questia’s topic page on human rights for more information. If not already a member, you can try Questia free for one day and conduct research into human rights issues in our books and journals.

Plato and Aristotle "The School of Athens"

To honor the historic events that took place in the month of July, we’re continuing our celebration of Space Exploration Month! Check out Questia’s topic page on space exploration for information on the memorable dates in space exploration history including the Apollo 11 lift off, the U.S.’s Moon Day and even the anniversary of NASA’s founding. None of those milestones could have come to pass without the the famous early astronomers from around the world. From determining that the Earth is round to discovering gravity, the theories of history’s earliest astronomers helped lay the foundation for today’s celestial sciences. In honor of Space Exploration Month, we’re granting access to reference works on five of history’s earliest astronomers for free for an entire month. Enjoy them while they’re available for this limited time!

1. Aristotle: Born in 384 B.C. in what is now the northern part of Greece, Aristotle spent much of his adult life in Athens and was a member of Plato’s Academy. While the chronological order of Aristotle’s works are unknown, many of his lectures offer a dialectical examination of physics and nature as well as proponed theories on form and matter. Aristotle’s claims of form and matter are the foundation for his most detailed accounts on substance, which also reflect his philosophy on the relation between mind, body and soul, as well as the nature of knowledge. [Irwin, Terrence, et al.  Aristotle: Selections.  Hackett Publishing Company: 1995]

2. Plato: A student of Socrates, Plato’s philosophy and theories of metaphysics and forms are well-recognized as well as his creation theories. Plato’s creation story, Timaeus, explores themes on the formation of the universe using natural philosophy. Plato suggested that the world was divinely created by a supreme deity, in a manner that similarly reflects today’s widely accepted “Big Bang” theory. [Zeyl, Donald J.  Timaeus.  Hackett: 2000]

3. Galileo: Known as the father of modern science, Galileo’s theories transformed Western culture and set the precedent for the Scientific Revolution. Galileo’s contributions to space exploration include his view that the Earth revolves around the Sun, contrary to the religious belief at the time that the Earth was the center of the universe. Galileo also improved upon the telescope and with it made several celestial discoveries, including studying the moons of Jupiter. [Shea, William R.  Galileo in Rome: The Rise and Fall of a Troublesome Genius. OxfordUniversity Press: 2003]

4. Nicholas Copernicus: Copernicus was a man of many trades, but is perhaps most remembered for his outlooks on astronomy and the universe. Within the field of astronomy, Copernicus contributed his theory in which the solar system functioned; with the sun at the center moving the Earth, moons and planets. Following the theory of light years and the Copernican conception, it was later discovered that the Earth is 93 million light years from the Sun. [Mizwa, Stephen P.  Nicholas Copernicus, 1543-1943.  Kosciuszko Foundation: 1943]

5. Isaac Newton: Some of Newton’s metaphysical concepts include absolute space, absolute time and absolute motion. These notions explore the theory that space, time and motion are the works of celestial mechanics which are based on gravitational pull. He recognized that the sun was the center of gravity within the solar system and that the planets move with an orbital motion in the form of an ellipse. From orbital motion, Newton deduced the theory of Universal gravitation in which is based on the compounding of celestial motions. [Cohen, Bernard.  The Cambridge Companion to Newton. CambridgeUniversity Press: 2002]

For a detailed timeline of early discoveries in astronomy, check out hotliquidmagma.com‘s ”A Practical Guide to Astronomy: The Early Astronomers.”

says Wendy Lustbader, adding, “We have e-mail now…” In her Aging Today essay The Demise of Letter-writing, she acknowledges, “It is true that e-mail from dear friends can be printed out and given the heft of paper. I have done this, placing each email in a file folder labeled with the friend’s name. But I prefer my shabby boxes filled with 30 years’ worth of letters from these same friends. When I open them, envelopes of different colors and shapes, stamps of all varieties and postmarks greet me. I see my name written in familiar handwriting, addressed to past domiciles…However, when I open a file folder of accumulated e-mail, I remain unmoved by those pages of bloodless, typed uniformity.”

“I discover what I am thinking when I am writing by hand, on paper…I believe more depth and cohesion comes with writing on paper…”.

“Handwriting can tie us to our beloveds like nothing else. Somehow it calls forth the person more than photographs or video clips…Handwritten letters voice the language of the soul and are the rarest of treasures.”

If the author’s persuasive argument and this nostalgic time of year have you thinking about putting pen to paper, we encourage you to give it a shot.  And if you need a little help getting started, visit Letter Writing Guide for tips on letter mechanics, what to include in different types of letters (including business correspondence), sample letters, and more.

A Fine Mess

Albert Einstein is widely quoted as saying, “If a cluttered desk signs a cluttered mind, of what, then, is an empty desk a sign?” If you’ve used his words to defend your own messy ways at school, work, or other parts of your life, you might be hard-wired for disorder. And that can be a good thing.

In his Psychology Today article Natural Element: Office Spaces, Jay Dixit says, “Studies show that top executives are actually less organized than subordinates, and levels of office messiness actually increase with education, salary, and experience.”

Dixit discusses University of California at San Diego cognitive scientist David Kirsh’s contention that “People respond differently to cues in the environment—and neat and messy people may be calibrating their workspaces to suit the way they think.” Kirsh goes on to explain that “It may be that messy and neat desks are actually adaptations to differing cognitive styles.

According to Kirsh, the state of our desks sets the arena for the next round of activity and provides entry points for the tasks of the day. “Messy people depend on the cues in their environment to prompt their behavior,” he says. “Their stacks of documents, folders, Post-it notes, and laid-open books remind them of what they’ve done and need to do.

While few people speak out in favor of disorganization, Dixit spotlights two who do – Eric Abrahamson and David H. Freedman, coauthors of A Perfect Mess: The Hidden Benefits of Disorder – How Crammed Closets, Cluttered Offices, and on-the-Fly Planning Make the World a Better Place (Little, Brown and Company, Hachette Book Group USA). Dixit shares this comment by Freedman: “The piles on messy desks are useful. You put your fingers on things quickly—often far faster than someone who files stuff. Plus, randomness is an essential part of creativity. Looking through those piles spurs connections, random thoughts that give you unexpected insights.”

Jason Stilwell talks about the chaos theory in his Public Management piece Managing chaos: use it to your advantage. You may be applying this theory to your life and work if, according to Stilwell’s insights, you “Rely less on precise planning,” if you’re “adaptive and flexible,” and if you maintain “a dynamic attitude.”  Check out the article to learn other useful insights that can help you thrive in a chaotic environment.