Richard Huish College Exam Hall

Not many of us like tests. But testing has long been seen as the best means for assessing intelligence and what students have learned from their instructors. So how is that view affected by the possibility of grade inflation in college? And is grade inflation really a problem, or has its impact been blown out of proportion?

Boosting learning

The whole purpose of college, and education in general, is for people to walk away with a certain mastery of a subject, as well as the ability to process new information as it comes to them. Professors, therefore, test to see if their students have an understanding of the materials and what areas might warrant more study. But is that the best way to boost learning?

“‘Cheating’ Can Be An Effective Learning Strategy” posted by Tania Lombrozo on NPR’s blog on May 20, 2013, looks at how UCLA ecologist Peter Nonacs sought to increase learning for his behavioral ecology class students by allowing them to use peers, books and the Internet to give the best answers to exam questions. Nonacs viewed it as students changing their learning goal, from getting a better score than their classmate, to providing the best answer.

Adopting mastery goals like these that focus on improving one’s own competence, according to Lombrozo’s post, might lead to greater learning and increase students’ willingness to tackle hard problems. She concludes, “So conceptualizing tests as opportunities for learning – consistent with a mastery goal – can itself improve learning, even if the tests take more traditional forms.”

Assessing intelligence … and grades

And with tests come grades. According to a new study, “Is the Sky Falling? Grade Inflation and the Signaling Power of Grades,” about grade inflation, the worry has been around for more than a century, with a Harvard University committee issuing a report on their concerns about the topic back in 1894. Scott Jaschik shared details on this new study in his May 20, 2013, post, “Missing the (Grade) Point” on Inside Higher Ed. The study published in Educational Researcher found that college GPAs had actually declined over the 30-year period of 1972 to 1992, from 2.73 to 2.33. Meanwhile, Jaschik sought a second opinion from Stuart Rojstaczer, a retired professor at Duke University, who believes that his research, and the data of others, shows that grade inflation is, in fact, a serious concern for higher education.

The downside of competitiveness

Whether or not grade inflation is a real concern, one issue that does seem to be pervasive for today’s college student is an increased level of stress because of grades. Higher Education in Transition: The Challenges of the New Millenium by Joseph Losco and Brian L. Fife, available at Questia.com, looked at a number of factors that have influenced higher education since 1966, from the women’s movement to a change in students’ values. Student stress is also one. They write that “there is good reason to believe that student stress may also have been exacerbated by competitiveness.”

Losco and Fife’s research shows that grade inflation is real and that it “has had an effect on students’ expectations.” They find that between 1990 and 1996, the number of freshmen with an A- or higher increased by nearly half (from 22.6 to 31.5 percent), and those with a C+ or lower went down from 19.2 to only 14.6 percent. What’s more a record number of students believe they will at least achieve a B average.

Interested in learning more about grade inflation? Questia.com has a range of full-text books and articles you can read on the topic. Assessing intelligence is undeniably complex. Testing will probably always be a part of the equation, despite any worries students and others may have about grade inflation in college.

Is testing a fair way to assess intelligence? Are colleges and universities inflating grades? Share your thoughts and opinions in the comments below.

(Photo credit: Ken Whytock)

For some the writing process is cathartic, while for others it’s more like torture. As a college student, having good writing skills is more critical for certain majors than others. However, once college is over, to compete in today’s job market, good writing skills aren’t an elective — they are a MUST. We could all use a lesson or two on how to brush up on our writing. Here are some useful tips on how to become a better writer.

Listen with attention

How many people do you know who are good listeners? I’d bet not all that many. Listening is a highly undervalued skill, but it can do wonders in helping your writing to get better. Like novelist Chuck Wendig says in his terribleminds.com blog post, “25 ways to become a better writer,” a good listener can tell how words sound on the page (be advised this post has some naughty language).

“We read with our ears as much as with your eyes and so it’s critical you know what sounds good as well as what reads well,” Wendig writes. “Sit down at a bar, listen to a conversation. Turn on an audio book or a radio show. Listen to a stand-up comedian deliver jokes and stories. Write it down if you must — see how it lays on the page.”

Read aloud

Hearing yourself reading your own work out loud may seem strange at first, but once you get used to it, you’ll notice right away those areas of your writing that just don’t jive. If it doesn’t read well while you’re reading it aloud, it probably needs some tweaking.

Dave Kerpen, CEO of Likeable Local and NY Times best-selling author, posted to LinkedIn February 21, 2013, in “Want to be taken seriously? Become a better writer,” how reading out loud has saved him.

“It’s great to hear my writing the way others will ‘hear’ it as they read,” Kerpen said. “Especially since tone in emails is difficult to convey, it’s valuable to say what you’re writing aloud, and then consider a quick edit, before you put it out there.”

Honor your inner weirdo

Stretching that proverbial writing muscle takes some creativity. Whether you’re writing a term paper, thesis or presentation, we can all benefit from some off-the-wall hilariousness. Have an idea for a sci-fi romantic comedy? Jot down a short story or let the ideas flow. The point is to just let the words flow and it’ll be much easier to get back to that boring assignment you’ve been circling for days.

Let the criticism fly

So you know that I know that we are our own worst critics. Sometimes those criticisms are true, but usually they are inflated insecurities floating around in our heads. To get some perspective, it’s always a good idea to tap a friend for some good advice on said work in question. Encourage honesty and keep your trap shut, and you might just get the real answers you’re looking for.

Proofread like your life depends on it

Think no one will notice a couple of typos in that email you sent with your resume? Well, maybe if if the reader is your mom. Otherwise, good luck with denial. The worst case scenario is your potential new boss will zoom in on the error and not hire you. Nothing feels worse than telling yourself, “If I’d only…” We’ve all been there. One of the best ways to avoid this scenario is to get in the habit of proofreading your work, all the time. It’s amazing how even one pass over can save you from disaster.

In a March 9, 2013, post to the Tribune-Review/Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, “Be careful what, how you write,” Anita Bruzzese Gannett interviewed Helen Cunningham, author of The Business Style Handbook, to get the skinny on the benefits of proofreading.

“Take time to proof your writing,” Cunningham said. “Read over your emails before sending to make sure they’re well written, and ask a colleague to review important messages or reports. Never put anything in writing that you would not want to see on the front page of a newspaper.”

For more information on writing, visit Questia’s topic page on Communication.

 What tips/exercises have helped you to improve your writing?

How far back does the oldest human (hominid) date from?

A)     250,000 years
B)     500,000 years
C)     1,000,000 years
D)     2.3 million years
E)     4.4 million years

Before I give you the answer (and before you search it online), you might want to know that back in 2005, National Geographic launched its Genographic Project. National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence Dr. Spencer Wells and his team of renowned international scientists began using the latest in genetic computational technologies to analyze historical patterns in DNA from participants around the globe to obtain further insight into our genetic origins.  The project is ongoing and you can participate and discover the migration paths your ancient ancestors followed thousands of years ago.

Ardipithecus ramidus

And the answer to question #1 is E. Named “Ardi,” (short for Ardipithecus ramidus) an international team of paleontologists discovered the oldest known skeleton of a potential human ancestor in Aramis, Ethiopia back in the early 1990’s. Some debate still remains whether Ardi is indeed the oldest human ancestor ever found. According to Tim White, paleontologist at the University of Berkeley’s Human Evolution Research Center, “It’s not a chimp. It’s not a human. “

Pop Quiz question #2.

What time period is generally considered the dawning of the Industrial Revolution?

A)     1760
B)     1780
C)     1800
D)     1820
E)      1840

Richard Trevithick (1771-1833)

Before we pick a date, let’s quickly remind ourselves of the one of the most influential and unsung heroes of the Industrial Revolution, Richard Trevithick.  A British inventor and mining engineer, it took years of experimentation and frustration for Trevithick to finally bring to life the world’s first high pressure cylindrical boiler and the first full-scale working railway steam locomotive, all around the turn of the 19^th century.

Did you answer question #2? It was Arnold Toynbee, famous 19^th century British economist and social reformer, who is first credited with describing England’s economic development from 1760 to 1840 as the “Industrial Revolution.” Answer A.

To encourage further study and learning on the major historical developments of humanity’s past, Questia is opening its doors to five of the top most researched history books and articles from our library. These books and articles were individually selected by our librarians and each one will spur you on as you plow into your history studies.

Prehistory: A Very Short Introduction

Author: Chris Gosden

This VSI to prehistory will introduce the reader to four and a half million years of human existence. Many of the familiar aspects of modern life are no more than a century or two old, yet our deep social structures and skills were in large measure developed by small bands of our prehistoric ancestors many millennia ago. Chris Gosden invites us to think seriously about who we are by considering who we have been.

Women’s Influence on Classical Civilization

Editors: Fiona Mchardy, Eireann Marshall

Written by an international range of renowned academics, this volume explores how women in antiquity influenced aspects of culture normally though of as male. Looking at politics, economics, science, law and the arts, the contributors examine examples from around the ancient world asking how far traditional definitions of culture describe male spheres of activity, and examining to what extent these spheres were actually created and perpetuated by women.

The Oxford History of Medieval Europe

Editor: George Holme

Covering a thousand years of history, this volume tells the story of the creation of Western civilization in Europe and the Mediterranean. Now available in a compact, more convenient format, it offers the same text and many of the illustrations which first appeared in the widely acclaimed Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe. Written by expert scholars and based on the latest research, the book explores a period of profound diversity and change, focusing on all aspects of medieval history

The Industrial Revolution in World History. Edition: 2nd

Author: Peter N. Stearns

This concise, accessible new edition from noted historian Peter N. Stearns examines the industrial revolution as a global phenomenon, in terms of causes and results extending through the 20th century and into the present.

The “New” Cold War History and the Origins of the Cold War

Author: Joseph M Siracusa

Siracusa writes his own analysis on the meaning and significance of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1998, the United States Congress passed legislation recognizing the dates of the Cold War as starting in September 2, 1945 and lasting until December 26, 1991.

For more information on human history, check out Questia’s topic page on archeology. 

Here’s a checklist of things to do before handing in your term paper:

1) Don’t write a high school paper.

This is college now. The tricks you learned in high school to write a paper won’t cut it in the more academic world of college. “Old formulae, such as the five-paragraph theme, aren’t sophisticated or flexible enough to provide a sound structure for a college paper. And many of the old tricks — such as using elevated language or repeating yourself — will fail you now,” noted Karen Gocsik in “What is an academic paper?” on the Dartmouth Writing Program site at Dartmouth.edu.

2) Make an outline and follow it.

So it doesn’t sound like you’re rambling through 10-15 pages, do some research first, get a good idea of what you want to write about, make an outline and stick to it. This will make your paper sound professional.

3) Ask your teacher.

Pay attention to directions if your teacher or professor tells you exactly what he/she wants: How many pages, on what topic, how many sources needed.

4) Go with your research.

Research today is easier than ever with electronic resources. In addition to Google and Bing (stay away from Wikipedia), there are Worldcat.org, InfoTrac, OneFile, LexisNexis Academic, EBSCOHost and ProQuest. You can also find professional journals and international books and periodicals. Consult your school librarian or city librarian.

5) Evaluate the credibility of scientific information.

If your paper is for a science, medical, health or engineering class, make sure your science and math are correct. No one likes sloppy science. Get your information from a credible source, not from a place that has an agenda or passes off personal experiences or public relations as real science. “Unethical lobbying groups who have particular political or business interests can take advantage of this, and work to perpetuate the disconnect between scientific and public understandings,” reported Kristen St. John in “The Need to Teach about Ethics and Science, and the Credibility of Sources,” in Journal of Geoscience Education, February 2013, found in Questia.com.

6) Don’t plagiarize.

Yes, you’ve heard it before. But it’s really true. Plagiarism gets you nowhere. You need to learn to write your own ideas in a clear and persuasive manner. And, professors are on to you — they know how to scan your paper into plagiarism detection software. Matt Petronzio’s August 29, 2012, article “How to Detect Plagiarism Online” in Mashable.com highlights ten online services that check text for plagiarism, including TurnItIn, Viper and PlagiarismChecker.com, all geared toward college term papers.

7) Check spelling and grammar.

Don’t forget to spell check. But also don’t forget to proofread your paper. Your spell checker doesn’t know the difference between synonyms and homonyms. If your grammar is a bit fuzzy or English is not your first language, ask a friend to read over your paper for good measure. A second set of eyes never hurts.

8) Use term paper format.

In addition to grammar and spelling, presentation is important. For easy reading and so the teacher has room to make comments, format your paper with:

• an easy-to-read serif font, such as Times New Roman
• one-inch margins, double-spaced text
• a header or footer on each page with your name, paper title, page number and course name
• on plain standard white 8 ½ x 11 paper (no onion skin, pink paper with hearts or resume paper).

What are your tips for writing a high-quality term paper?

Science articles and science books

We at Questia know that college students will never want to be faced with such a drastic situation as poor Varvara, but it sure helps to know that as a resource, we’re able to offer you a bundle of excellent source materials to guide you in your research. Science students using Questia’s rich database can find the following:

• More than thirty four thousand online books that cover a wide range of scientific writings, case studies, popular culture
• More than five thousand academic journal articles taken from science trade books and journals
• More than seven thousand magazine articles
• Nearly twenty thousand newspaper articles ranging from quantum mechanics to scientific ethics

A sample of Questia’s top archived science books include: Connected Knowledge: Science, Philosophy, and Education; Science, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia; A House Built on Sand: Exposing Postmodernist Myths about Science, and The Einstein Paradox and Other Science Mysteries Solved by Sherlock Holmes by Colin Bruce. Readers of The Einstein Paradox are introduced to the bizarre concepts of modern physics as the only way to solve a casebook of otherwise impossibly paradoxical crimes.

Below is a snapshot of science books and articles taken from Questia’s archives. We’ve included short descriptions of each book to provide you with a preview of just what’s in store for you when you begin exploring Questia.

Disease and Medicine in World History

By Sheldon Watts

Publisher: Routledge. Place of publication: New York. Publication year: 2003

Drawing on case studies from ancient Egypt to present-day America, Asia and Europe, this survey discusses concepts of sickness and forms of treatment in many cultures. Author Sheldon Watts shows that many medical practices in the past were shaped as much by philosophers and metaphysicians as by university-trained doctors and other practitioners.

The Long Thaw: How Humans Are Changing the Next 100,000 Years of Earth’s Climate

By David Archer

Publisher: Princeton University Press. Place of publication: Princeton, NJ. Publication year: 2010.

In The Long Thaw, David Archer, one of the world’s leading climatologists, predicts that if we continue to emit carbon dioxide we may eventually cancel the next ice age and raise the oceans by 50 meters. The great ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland may take more than a century to melt, and the overall change in sea level will be one hundred times what is forecast for 2100.

How Mathematicians Think: Using Ambiguity, Contradiction, and Paradox to Create Mathematics

Contributors: William Byers – Author.

Publisher: Princeton University Press. Place of publication: Princeton, NJ. Publication year: 2010.

To many outsiders, mathematicians appear to think like computers, grimly grinding away with a strict formal logic and moving methodicallyfrom one black-and-white deduction to another. Yet mathematicians often describe their most important breakthroughs as creative, intuitive responses to ambiguity, contradiction, and paradox. A unique examination of this less-familiar aspect of mathematics, How Mathematicians Think reveals that mathematics is a profoundly creative activity and not just a body of formalized rules and results.

“Curiosity Goes to Mars: NASA’s Rover Looks for Life-Friendly Environments“

Contributors: Drake, Nadia – Author.

Magazine title: Science News. Volume: 182. Issue: 13 Publication date: December 29, 2012.

This is an essay on NASA’s recent feat of safely landing a rover, called Curiosity, on the planet Mars. Curiosity’s principle objective is to characterize habitable environments on the Martian landscape.

100 Greatest Science Inventions of All Time

Contributors: Kendall Haven – Editor.

Publisher: Libraries Unlimited. Place of publication: Westport, CT. Publication year: 2006.

This book presents fascinating facts about 100 amazing inventions, a panoramic overview of the history of science, and a collection of engaging reads. It is a useful tool for teachers and students to learn about inventions and their critical role in human development.

This Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War

Author: James M. McPherson

One of America’s preeminent historians on the American Civil War, Pulitzer Prize winner McPherson compiles a number of his essays, several previously unpublished and all updated and revised, in this 2007 collection. Dealing with everyday topics, such as the love soldiers had for newspapers, to larger topics, such as the creation of the Lost Cause mystique in the postwar South, McPherson provides an interpretive history of the war and its meaning for America. McPherson spotlights famous figures including Harriet Tubman, John Brown, Jesse James and William Tecumseh Sherman, and offers new insights into General Robert E. Lee’s goals in the Gettysburg Campaign, Lincoln and Grant in the Vicksburg campaign, and Lincoln as Commander-in-Chief.

Why the Civil War Came

Editor: Gabor S. Boritt

Turning Points of the Civil War

Author: James A. Rawley

Freedom, Union, and Power: Lincoln and His Party during the Civil War
Author: Michael S. Green

Causes Won, Lost, and Forgotten: How Hollywood and Popular Art Shape What We Know about the Civil War

Author: Gary W. Gallagher

Study better next time

Maybe midterms didn’t go the way you planned. You realize you need to review test taking tips and attack the problem from a different angle. Here are few tips:

• Talk to the professor. Discuss the important points of the class material and how you can concentrate on those. If possible, bring your midterm and go over the questions you got wrong.
• Study with a buddy. Get tutored by a peer who understands the material. Ask each other sample test questions.
• Take a deep breath. It’s not the end of the world. Get a pizza, play a video game, unwind. This is a chance to learn from our mistakes and aim to improve our grade on the next test.

Study scientifically

Benedict Carey in the New York Times reported in “Forget What You Know About Good Study Habits,” September 6, 2010, that some counter-intuitive methods of studying actually work.

• Alternate your study location. Being in different environments helps improve retention of class material.
• Vary the material you’re studying. Do a little reading, then some vocabulary, then some math or problem solving. The different ways of thinking stimulate the brain. Nate Kornell, a psychologist at WilliamsCollege, explained that this strategy undermines the common assumption that intensive immersion is the best way to really master a particular genre, or type of creative work.
• Study in chunks. Don’t cram all at once. Space out your studying over a period of time to let your brain absorb the information slowly.

Take harder classes next term

Hey, maybe you aced your midterm exams. You’re really getting the hang of college, good study habits and taking tests. Why not challenge yourself to be the best you can be? See if there are one or two harder classes you can take next term. An organic chemistry class, a physics or math class, or just a more advanced version of an elective. Attempting a difficult class helps us learn to tackle challenging tasks and develop coping skills and strategies.

The age-old question arises: Should we take easy classes we know we can get better grades on, or take more challenging classes and possibly get lower grades? Which is better? “Taking too many easy classes can be construed that you can’t handle difficult subject matter,” said a blogger in the article “Are Harder College Classes Better For You Than Easier Ones?” on Tutorii.com. “[Then] there are times where you can garner more respect because you did take a challenging class that few others would take. It depends on how you present the academic record to potential interviewers.”

Improve your GPA

The general rule is two hours of study for every one hour spent in class. But to improve a grade point average (GPA), a whole lotta studying needs to happen. Professor Carl Zulaf of OhioStateUniversity found that a 40-hour increase in weekly studying was needed to achieve a one-letter increase in quarterly GPA. “A lifestyle change has to happen before an impact is made on a student’s grades,” said Zulaf in “Studying Still the Key to Academic Success,” in USA Today, April 2001 found on Questia.com. “The ability to use time is positively related to academic performance. But it takes a lot of commitment by a student to significantly increase the number of hours he studies.”

How did you do on your midterms? Do you think you’ll sign up for a harder class next term?

A lecture played on a Video iPod, via AV output onto an analog TV screen (Photo credit: Tama Leaver)

Lecture capture technology is an assistive technology in the classroom that allows teachers to record their lectures digitally for future replay. The technology uses screenshot software to record PowerPoint slides and notes or uses webcams to video full lectures and demonstrations. The benefits of this technology include student ability to review missed material and improve study habits; while detractors say it’s just another way for students to learn passively.

What is lecture capture technology?

Lecture capture is a way for instructors to record classroom lectures. Recordings can be just audio, audio with PowerPoint slides, cursor movements that track on-screen computer activity or a full webcam video recording. Playback can be on various devices such as iPods, computer screens or YouTube. Once recorded, teachers can edit material for clarity or removal of extraneous interruptions, and lectures can be uploaded within 24 hours. Information can be stored for a long time for future use by in-house students or off-campus students. According to consulting firm Frost & Sullivan, the lecture capture business was more than $70 million in 2011.

Benefits of lecture capture for students:

• Watch captured lectures to catch up if class is missed
• Review pertinent lectures for tests, research or term paper projects
• Repeat parts of lectures that were difficult or too fast to grasp during class
• Watch complicated demonstrations (i.e. for medical classes)
• Learn in a medium young adults are familiar with
• Cater to flexible student schedules
• Share classroom material with peers.

Benefits of lecture capture for teachers:

• Use the recorded lectures for online or remote classes
• Trim and edit lectures for concise 10-15-minute snippets of information
• Supplement resources to lectures
• Offer students more information outside of class
• Use for faculty training
• Collaborate with other instructors for a blended presentation
• Record presentations by visiting guest speakers and subject matter experts.

Unique uses for lecture capture technology

“Many students have the same questions on class material. Rather than write 15 emails back responding to student questions, I can screen capture a quick mini-lecture or example of the problem and provide to those students,” said Geri Mason, assistant professor of Economics at Seattle Pacific University, reported in “5 Innovative Ways to Use Lecture Capture Technology,” University Business, November 2012 found on Questia.com.

Drawbacks to lecture capture

Not everyone is singing the praises of lecture capture technology. Education technology expert Mark Smithers laid out some drawbacks of the practice in his March 11, 2011 blog article, “Is lecture capture the worst educational technology?”:

• Watching recordings of lectures perpetuates the passive learning experience. Smithers prefers more hands-on learning.
• The technology does not engage the student any more than sitting in a lecture hall does.
• Traditional class lectures are much too long for students to re-watch another time.
• Funding for lecture capture equipment could be put to better use. According to Tegrity Campus, lecture capture services can start at $10,000 for 250 hours, and about 80 percent of total cost of ownership is from online management and maintenance.

Other disadvantages:

• Lecture capture should not be a substitute for attending class and may encourage students to skip class.
• Teachers rely too much on the recordings and don’t explore or develop more modern teaching methods.

On the legal side, Educause Learning Initiative discussed some legal issues in a December 2008 post titled “7 things you should know about Lecture Capture.” “Some question who is responsible for providing the recording resources and who owns the intellectual property once the recording has been made. Using these systems for classes, conferences, and guest speakers might require a legal release…” reports ELI.

Other concerns are storage of the recordings, infrastructure when playing the recordings and using equipment, who should have access to the recordings and if the recordings should play on faculty websites.

Architecture, which is the art or practice of designing and constructing buildings, takes us back to more than 10,000 years to the Neolithic period, or the latter part of the Stone Age. Great builders using mud and brick originated in the Middle East and Mediterranean (at the time called Mesopotamia) and proliferated throughout Europe and Central Asia.

It was not until 200 B.C. when builders in Greece and Turkey devised cement as a material to replace weaker mortars for construction. In the late 1^st century, A.D. the Roman architect Vitruvius put together what is widely considered the oldest surviving work on the subject of architecture, De architectura. Roman architectural engineering, with its emphasis on arches, vaults, and domes, would spread across Europe and its basilica design would eventually provide a model for the Christian church.

Merging styles from the Roman Empire, Greece, and India helped give rise to Islamic architecture, with its popular emphasis on Mosques, Madrasahs (public schools), Hammams (designs for bathhouses), Casbahs and Citadels. An early and recognizable example of Islamic architecture includes the Dome of the Rock based in Jerusalem and completed in 691 A.D.

Around the time of the early Middle Ages emerged Romanesque architecture, which was a revisiting of Roman-styled architecture circa 800-1100AD.  In particular, stone used was cut with precision and was supported in the middle by arch construction. Buttresses were introduced as a means of support to the basic design in Romanesque architecture. Famed cathedrals employing the Romanesque style include Reims Cathedral, completed towards the end of the 13^th century, and the Milan Cathedral, or “Duomo di Milano,” one of the largest Gothic cathedrals in the world; it took nearly five centuries to complete.

Renaissance architecture debuted in Florence, with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators in the early 15^th century. With a focus on symmetry, proportion, and geometry, the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France, Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere. One of Burnelleschi’s most famous examples of Quattrocento (a return to the Roman and Greek sculptors) is the Basilica di San Lorenzo in Florence officially completed in 1459.

Modern architecture varies widely in its scope and definition but it was at the turn of the 20^th century coinciding with rapid technological advances that architectural design began taking on simpler styles. The industrial revolution made possible the use of materials for construction previously unavailable, including iron, steel, and sheet glass. One of the most original and famous modern architects of the 20^th century is Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959).  Wright embraced the social and technological changes during his time, designing structures he felt met the individual physical, social, and spiritual needs of the modern American citizen. Wright called his architecture “organic” as he was inspired by Nature to create modern day environments that nourished the human soul. Fallingwater remains one of his most enduring architectural works.

We at Questia hope this brief overview of architectural history will prompt you to take peek inside our listing of architecture books and articles.  Below is a snapshot of our archive providing you with great reference material on many of the architectural styles outlined above. Enjoy!

Medieval Architecture

This book is intended as an introductory survey of the architecture of the Middle Ages in western Europe from circa A.D. 300 to 1500, from the early Christian period through the late Gothic in Europe. It aims to fill a gap between the very selective and cursory mention of major medieval buildings in general surveys of art or architectural history and the in-depth books on particular periods or regions, so that the interested reader can find in one volume what has previously been scattered through myriad expensive books.

[Calkins, Robert G. Medieval Architecture in Western Europe: From A.D. 300 to 1500. New York: Oxford UP, 1998. Questia. Web. 4 Apr. 2013.]

Renaissance Architecture

Filippo Brunelleschi’s design for the dome of the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence remains one of the most towering achievements of Renaissance architecture. Completed in 1436, the dome remains a remarkable feat of design and engineering. Its span of more than 140 feet exceeds St Paul’s in London and St Peter’s in Rome, makes it the largest dome ever constructed using bricks and mortar. Ross King tells the story of its creation and its brilliant creator.

[King, Ross. Brunelleschi's Dome: How a Renaissance Genius Reinvented Architecture. New York: Walker, 2000. Questia. Web. 4 Apr. 2013.]

Modern Architecture

This anthology examines the heterogeneous modern culture of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and traces its manifestations in architecture and the city. The essays present a wide variety of approaches and materials, a heterogeneity which in itself constitutes an apt image of the multiplicity of viewpoints characterizing modernity.

[Hvattum, Mari, and Christian Hermansen, eds. Tracing Modernity: Manifestations of the Modern in Architecture and the City. New York: Routledge, 2004. Questia. Web. 4 Apr. 2013.]

Islamic Architecture

Written with the non-Muslim reader in mind, this book analyses the principles and values established by Islamic tradition to govern the social and physical environments of Muslims.

The picture of Islam that emerges from this work is of a way of life with social ideals. Relying on the Qur’an and Sunna, the basic sources of Islamic law, and using examples of the built environment of early Muslims in North Africa, the Middle East, Europe and Central Asia, the author explains how following these ideals can create an urban environment that responds to social and environmental variables. Islamic views on the controversial issue of modernization are also examined.

[Mortada, Hisham. Traditional Islamic Principles of Built Environment. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003. Questia. Web. 4 Apr. 2013.]

Frank Lloyd Wright

Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) is probably the most famous architect in the world. He is author of undoubtedly the most famous private home in the world, Fallingwater, which perches so dramatically on the cliff overhanging the eponymous waterfall near Pittsburgh. How did this acknowledged masterpiece, this work of such singular genius, come to be? The story of Fallingwater’s inception serves as a perfect introduction to the persona that Wright, and to an extent those who knew him, fashioned for popular media consumption.

[Steffensen, Ingrid. "Frank Lloyd Wright and the "Gift" of Genius." Journal of American Culture (Malden, MA) 32.3 (2009): 257+. Questia. Web. 4 Apr. 2013.]

What are the highest paying jobs in the US?

Let’s cut to the chase. Jobs in the medical field are the answer to this question 90% of the time. According to a Yahoo! News article written by Danielle Kurtzleben on March 29, 2013, “The 10 highest-paid jobs in America,” anesthesiology tops the list with an annual salary of $232,830. Other professions that made the list include:

• Surgeons
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons
• Orthodontists
• Psychiatrists

According to the article, “The only non-medical workers that make it onto the list are chief executives, who come in at No. 10 with around $177,000 in annual wages, or around 24 percent less than the anesthesiologists.”

Although it is obvious that medical careers compensate nicely, remember that these numbers are not starting salaries, but a general average of all the workers in the field. You should also remember that these careers require more than just a Bachelor’s Degree. However, if science or medicine is your cup of tea, it may well be worth looking into these fields, since even family practitioners average $180,850 a year.

But I don’t want to wait years for a decent salary

Although medical professions are worthwhile, it can take a significant amount of time to build up a salary base. If you are looking for more instant gratification, consider reading an article posted on Scholarships.com titled “Top 10 highest paying college majors.” A few that made their list include:

• Computer Science
• Finance
• Information Sciences and Systems
• Engineering (in a number of fields)

In fact, it seems like Engineering might just be the hot new job trend, especially for graduates in the near future. Meghan Casserly describes “The 10 best-paying college majors — and why business isn’t one of them” in her January 25, 2013, article for Forbes. According to Casserly, “a STEM degree could be the fast-track to financial and professional success every new grad is dreaming of.” Meaning that if you have a talent or passion for science, technology, engineering and/or mathematics, you may have a better chance of landing that dream job post-graduation. And a number of colleges are picking up on this trend.

Your major should highlight your skills

Although it would be great to aspire to become an anesthesiologist, if you faint at the sight of blood, you should probably consider a different career. Yes, it would be fabulous to earn a six-figure salary, but it’s also important to do something you love. So, when declaring your major, take some advice from an article titled “Pick a college major with the tight information why should you go to college?” written for the Daily Herald on March 24, 2013.

According to the article, “if you want to open up a wealth of opportunities for yourself as you begin your career, it is important that you make yourself as marketable as possible — by choosing a major in college that best suits you.”

Have you declared a major yet? If so, which did you decide on and why? If not, which ones are you leaning toward? Remember, giving others insight into your decisions may just help them make up their minds!